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História

A FEBRE DE WALLACE

A FEBRE DE WALLACE

Alfred Russel Wallace e a Expedição Amazónica (1848–1852): o Brasil nas origens biogeográficas da teoria da evolução

Publicado em 27-07-2026

(English, please scroll down)


Inspirado pelos vívidos relatos dos naturalistas viajantes que o precederam e pelos seus próprios contemporâneos, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) alimentava, desde a juventude, a firme determinação de devassar os trópicos. Anos mais tarde, o cientista registaria que o Journal of Researches de Charles Darwin e a Personal Narrative de Alexander von Humboldt haviam sido «as duas obras a cuja inspiração devo a minha decisão de visitar os trópicos como colecionador». Após a leitura atenta de A Voyage up the River Amazon, da autoria de William Henry Edwards, Wallace e o seu dileto amigo e entomólogo Henry Walter Bates calcularam que, mediante a colheita e transação sistemática de espécimes de história natural — como aves e insetos —, lograriam saldar integralmente as despesas do seu empreendimento, augurando ainda avultados proveitos financeiros.

Para viabilizar o plano, contrataram os serviços de Samuel Stevens como agente comercial, incumbido de anunciar e gerir a venda dos exemplares a prestigiadas instituições e colecionadores particulares no Reino Unido, auferindo uma comissão de 20% sobre as vendas, acrescida de 5% pelos encargos de expedição e transferência de fundos. Assim, no ano de 1848, aos 25 anos de idade, Wallace e Bates embarcaram a bordo do brigue Mischief rumo ao Império do Brasil. Movidos pelo propósito de recolher fauna neotropical para o enriquecimento de acervos privados e alienação dos duplicados em solo britânico, Wallace acalentava, fundamentalmente, uma ambição conceptual mais vasta: coligir evidências empíricas respeitantes ao enigma da «transmutação das espécies».

Ao aportarem em Belém do Pará, os dois investigadores consagraram a quase totalidade do primeiro ano à colheita de material nas vizinhanças do estuário amazónico. Posteriormente, optaram por cindir a rota e demandar o interior de forma autónoma, aprazando encontros periódicos para confrontar e debater as respetivas descobertas. Em 1849, juntou-se-lhes brevemente o botânico Richard Spruce, acompanhado pelo irmão mais novo de Wallace, Herbert. Este último regressaria à Europa pouco tempo depois, vindo a sucumbir tragicamente à febre amarela dois anos volvidos. Spruce, à semelhança de Bates, permaneceria mais de uma década em laboriosa atividade de prospeção na América do Sul.

Wallace devotou quatro anos à exploração minuciosa do curso do Rio Amazonas e do seu imponente afluente, o Rio Negro. Espetador atento, não só reuniu milhares de espécimes vegetais e animais (incluindo aves, insetos e peixes), como empreendeu escrupulosos registos cartográficos, etnográficos e linguísticos sobre as populações autóctones. Entre agosto de 1850 e maio de 1852, fixou-se no Rio Negro, fazendo uso dos seus apurados dotes de topógrafo para cartografar, mediante o recurso ao sextante e à bússola, tanto esse curso de água como o Rio Uaupés, cujas águas subiu até penetrar em território colombiano — regiões até então praticamente virgens de catalogações científicas por europeus.

As intuições biogeográficas e o conceito de especiação

No decurso desta prolongada imersão no seio da vertiginosa biodiversidade equatorial, Wallace operou observações de alcance precursor. Notou que as vastas caudais hidrográficas, como o Amazonas e o Rio Negro, atuavam como insuperáveis barreiras geográficas para diversas espécies terrestres e primatas. Espécies morfológica e taxonomicamente distintas, embora estreitamente aparentadas, povoavam as margens opostas da mesma corrente fluviais. Daí inferiu uma premissa basilar: a segregação espacial prolongada de uma população por um obstáculo natural impulsiona, com o decorrer das eras, a divergência evolutiva e a emersão de novas espécies — intuição que constitui o alicerce da teoria moderna da especiação alopátrica.

Paralelamente, o naturalista dedicou-se ao escrutínio do mimetismo em lepidópteros e insetos tropicais, descortinando como determinadas espécies inofensivas emulavam os padrões cromáticos de espécimes venenosos para eludir a predação, o que patenteava com clareza a modelação exercida pelas pressões ambientais na seleção dos organismos mais aptos.

A catástrofe no Atlântico (1852)

Em 12 de julho de 1852, debilitado por acessos de malária e febre amarela, Wallace empreendeu a viagem de regresso à Grã-Bretanha a bordo do brigue Helen. Transportava no porão a súmula de quatro anos de incansável labor: centenas de desenhos minuciosos, manuscritos, descrições sistemáticas e milhares de exemplares vivos e preservados. Contudo, ao 25.º dia de navegação no Atlântico, um incêndio incontrolável deflagrou na carga de resina da embarcação, forçando a tripulação e os passageiros ao abandono do navio.

Praticamente a totalidade da sua magnífica coleção brasileira foi tragada pelas chamas ou afundou-se no oceano. Salvou tão-só alguns cadernos de anotações e esboços a lápis que trazia no bolso. Acompanhado pelos marinheiros, Wallace derivou durante dez tormentosos dias num escaler à deriva, até ser resgatado pelo brigue Jordeson, vindo de Cuba. Após uma travessia atribulada e fustigada pela escassez de mantimentos, alcançaram finalmente o porto de Londres a 1 de outubro de 1852.

O legado e a o impacto da sua teoria

Mercê do seguro de 200 libras esterlinas promovido por Stevens, Wallace manteve-se em Londres ao longo de dezoito meses, subsistindo dessa indemnização e da venda residual de espécimes remetidos previamente. Não obstante a perda devastadora das suas notas primordiais, redigiu seis artigos científicos — destacando-se «On the Monkeys of the Amazon» — e duas monografias fundamentais: Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses e A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro (1853), ingressando ativamente nos círculos de vanguarda da comunidade científica britânica.

Embora a formulação cabal do mecanismo da seleção natural tenha despontado anos mais tarde — no Arquipélago Malaio, sob o impacto de uma crise febril em Ternate (1858) —, a expedição sul-americana revelou-se a matriz insubstituível do seu pensamento. Foi a experiência amazónica que lhe facultou as premissas para redigir o famoso ensaio de Sarawak (1855) — onde proclamou a lei segundo a qual «toda a espécie surgiu em coincidência espacial e temporal com uma espécie parente pré-existente» — e que o conduziu, de forma independente de Charles Darwin, à síntese da teoria da evolução. O Brasil figurou, assim, para Wallace como as Ilhas Galápagos para Darwin: o laboratório vivo e monumental que desmantelou irrevogavelmente o dogma da criação independente das espécies.

 

II. Historical Account and Scientific Synthesis

Inspired by the vivid accounts of travelling naturalists from bygone eras and by those of his contemporaries, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) resolved early in life to venture into the tropics. He would later record that Charles Darwin’s Journal of Researches and Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative were “the two works to whose inspiration I owe my determination to visit the tropics as a collector.” Upon reading William Henry Edwards’s A Voyage up the River Amazon, Wallace and his esteemed friend, the entomologist Henry Walter Bates, calculated that by systematically collecting and selling natural-history specimens—such as birds and insects—they might fully defray the costs of their enterprise, with the prospect of handsome profit besides.

To this end, they engaged Samuel Stevens as their commercial agent, who undertook to advertise and arrange the sale of specimens to prestigious institutions and private collectors throughout Great Britain, in return for a commission of twenty per cent on sales, plus an additional five per cent for the forwarding of goods and remittance of payments. Thus, in the year 1848, at twenty-five years of age, Wallace and Bates set sail for the Empire of Brazil aboard the brig Mischief. Beyond gathering Neotropical fauna for private cabinets and disposing of duplicate examples to British museums, Wallace cherished a grander conceptual ambition: to amass empirical evidence bearing upon the elusive mystery of the “transmutation of species.”

Upon landing at Belém do Pará, the two naturalists devoted the greater part of their first year to gathering specimens in the environs of the Amazon estuary. Thereafter, they chose to divide their routes and explore the interior separately, meeting intermittently to compare and discuss their respective discoveries. In 1849, they were joined briefly by another young explorer, the botanist Richard Spruce, as well as by Wallace’s younger brother, Herbert. Herbert departed for home shortly afterwards (succumbing tragically to yellow fever two years later), whereas Spruce, like Bates, would remain in South America for more than a decade, engaged in tireless scientific collection.

Wallace spent four years exploring the Amazon River and its mighty tributary, the Rio Negro. An exacting observer, he not only assembled extensive collections of flora and fauna (encompassing birds, insects, fish, and plants), but also recorded detailed geographical, ethnographic, and linguistic notes regarding the indigenous populations. From August 1850 to May 1852, he established his base upon the Rio Negro, employing his surveying skills to chart the river and its tributary, the Uaupés, by means of a sextant and compass. He ascended the Uaupés until penetrating Colombian territory—regions hitherto virtually uncharted by European naturalists.

Biogeographical Insights and Speciation

During his prolonged immersion within the overwhelming biodiversity of the equatorial rainforest, Wallace reached groundbreaking scientific conclusions. He observed that the vast river systems, such as the Amazon and the Rio Negro, acted as insurmountable geographical barriers for numerous terrestrial species and primates. Morphologically distinct yet closely allied species inhabited opposite banks of the same stream. From this, he inferred a foundational premise: that the prolonged physical separation of a population by a natural obstacle drives evolutionary divergence over time, culminating in the emergence of distinct species—an insight that forms the bedrock of the modern theory of allopatric speciation.

Concurrently, Wallace studied the intricate mimicry exhibited by tropical butterflies and insects, discerning how harmless species mimicked the chromatic patterns of toxic ones to evade predators—a phenomenon that eloquently demonstrated the agency of environmental pressures in favoring the survival of the fittest individuals.

Tragedy in the Atlantic (1852)

On 12 July 1852, his health severely compromised by bouts of malaria and yellow fever, Wallace embarked for Great Britain aboard the brig Helen. In the hold, he carried the fruits of four years of unremitting toil: hundreds of meticulous drawings, field notebooks, systematic descriptions, and thousands of preserved and living specimens. However, twenty-five days into the Atlantic crossing, a catastrophic fire erupted among the ship's cargo of resin, compelling the crew and passengers to abandon the vessel.

Nearly his entire Brazilian collection was consumed by flames or swallowed by the ocean. He managed to save only a few sketchbooks and pencil notes that he happened to have in his pocket. Wallace and the crew drifted for ten perilous days in an open lifeboat before being rescued by the brig Jordeson, bound from Cuba to London. After an arduous voyage fraught with depleted rations, they finally reached their destination on 1 October 1852.

Scientific Legacy and Theoretical Impact

Owing to a £200 insurance policy secured by Stevens, Wallace spent eighteen months in London living upon the indemnity and the sale of a few specimens dispatched to England earlier. Despite the devastating loss of his primary notes, he authored six scientific papers—most notably “On the Monkeys of the Amazon”—and two foundational books: Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro (1853), thereby securing a prominent place within the British scientific elite.

Although the definitive formulation of the mechanism of natural selection would occur years later—in the Malay Archipelago, during a feverish epiphany at Ternate in 1858—the South American expedition provided the indispensable foundation for his thought. It was his Amazonian experience that supplied the empirical groundwork for his famous Sarawak Paper (1855)—wherein he articulated the law that “every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a pre-existing closely allied species”—and ultimately led him, independently of Charles Darwin, to synthesize the theory of evolution by natural selection. Brazil was to Wallace what the Galápagos Islands were to Darwin: the living, majestic laboratory that forever shattered the dogma of the independent creation of species.

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